ANAEMIA: Iron-deficiency anaemia is the most widespread nutrient deficiency in the world, Between 40 and 50 % of children under the age of 5 in the developing countries are iron deficient and iron deficiency accounts up to 20% of all maternal deaths. It also impairs immunity and reduces the physical and mental capacities of people of all ages. Women, in general, have smaller stores of iron than men and have increased loss through menstruation, placing them at higher risk for anemia than men. Iron deficiency is a major public health problem world wide with enormous social and economic costs..

Guidelines To Prevent & Manage Anaemia

Eat Fresh Fruit Or Drink Juice Everyday
The ideal is to have a small glass of juice or a fruit shake before or after every meal, as this will help the absorption of iron by the body. Freshly squeezed fruit and vegetable juices contain large amounts of vitamin C and other natural nutrients, but some carton juices can also have a high vitamin C content: cranberry juice has one of the highest.
If you feel that citrus fruits are a little acid, have another fruit, such as strawberries, after your meal as a dessert. Keep your vitamin C topped up by including some dark green leafy vegetables with each of your main meals. This could be a soup, a salad, or perhaps steamed broccoli tossed in a light olive oil with freshly chopped root ginger.


Eat One Of The Rich Sources Of Iron Two Or Three Times A Week
If you eat meat this could be either lean red meat, game or offal such as liver or kidney.
Remember that the body absorbs 20-40% of the iron available in meat sources, but only 5-20% of the iron from vegetable sources and eggs. If you eat a mixed diet including fruit, vegetables, meat and fish you are thought to absorb approximately 15-20% of the iron in the food.

Eat Plenty Of Non-Haem Sources Of Iron Most Days
This means eggs, green leafy vegetables such as spinach, savoy cabbage, curly kale, watercress, broccoli, baked beans Soya- beans and other pulses, black treacle, nuts an dried fruits (especially apricots). Vegetarians and vegans, who eat very few or no animal products, should include a rich source of non-haem iron everyday.

It is especially important for vegetarians and vegans to have a glass of freshly squeezed fruit juice with each meal, as you really need the vitamin C to help your body absorb the iron. Some vegetarians may need to take an iron supplement if they cannot get enough iron from the diet.

Avoid Having Excessive Amounts Of Foods And Drinks That Inhibit Iron Absorption
Coffee, tea and cola-based drinks will prevent the body from absorbing iron effectively because they contain tannins and caffeine. You should keep your tea and coffee intake down to a maximum of two to three cups a day and allow at least one hour between drinking tea or coffee before or after a meal, to give your gut a chance to absorb the iron from the food. Anaemic women should make a real effort to cut out the excessive, needless consumption of these drinks; it is far better to make a really good cup of coffee or tea and enjoy it at a suitable time of day.

Remember that chocolate, although it contains iron, also contains substances that prevent efficient iron absorption, so don't over-indulge, even though you may feel as if you need an energy boost; chocolate is not the answer. Choose a zingy piece of fresh citrus fruit or a glass of mango juice instead.

Diabetes is a disease where the body is unable to produce or unable to properly use and store glucose. Glucose is a form of sugar. Diabetes causes glucose to back up in the bloodstream. As more and more glucose remains in the bloodstream blood glucose or blood sugar levels can rise too high. Many side effects can result from high blood sugar levels. Consider the following diabetes symptoms as you seek to properly diagnose and treat diabetes:

Insulin is a hormone that enables the body to use glucose to produce energy.
There are two major types of diabetes. Consider the following information as it relates to both type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes.
In type 1 diabetes, the body completely stops producing any insulin. Sufferers of type 1 diabetes must take daily insulin injections in order to survive.   Type 1 diabetes usually develops in children or young adults; however, it can occur at any age.
Type 2 diabetes (also called adult-onset diabetes or non insulin-dependent diabetes) results when the body doesn’t produce enough insulin and/or is unable to use insulin properly (insulin resistance).    Type 2 diabetes usually occurs in people who have the following characteristics:

Although the above characteristics are common in the majority of diagnosed diabetes cases, at present diabetes is increasingly occurring in younger people, particularly adolescents.
Anyone diagnosed with diabetes should be seen at least once every six months by an endocrinologist (diabetes specialist). In addition to the visits with the endocrinologist, patients should periodically visit with a diabetes nurse educator, dietitian, exercise physiologist, ophthalmologist, and a mental health professional. In order to ensure that blood sugar levels stay in the normal rang, a diabetes sufferer should monitor his or her blood glucose level on a daily basis. To combat the exorbitant costs of treating and staying on top of diabetes, it is important to research out the best and most affordable diabetes insurance provider available.

Lifestyle changes

If your doctor told you that you have diabetes, you are sure to be concerned. Diabetes is not something that can be ignored. It is not going to go away after a few days of medication. You have to be on guard constantly.
The good news is that diabetes can be controlled and when it is kept under control, there is much less chance of it leading to any complication.
Whether it is Type I or Type II diabetes you can still lead an active life. Apart from eating chocolates, candies and substances containing refined sugar, you can eat most foods in the right measure.
You need to make some small but sure lifestyle changes:

Meal Plan - Follow your doctor’s advice and avoid certain foods. Eat planned portions at regular times. Carry some snack with you in case you hit the other extreme due to excess activity or medication and reach low blood sugar levels (Hypoglycaemia).

Exercise - Exercise is recommended for all. It keeps us good looking and healthy. If you are a diabetic exercise acquires greater significance. It saves you from putting on excessive weight and keeps a check on blood pressure as well. These two factors could lead to severe complications in a diabetic.

Medication - If you have been advised insulin injections or other medication take them regularly. When you go on trips, weddings, or stay late at work, don’t miss your medicines.

Check ups - Go for them regularly. If you are highly diabetic and are not able to control it efficiently, it is better to get your blood sugar and related test done every month. In other cases the doctor may advise quarterly tests.

Planning travel - Take your medicines. Just check if you could get a low sugar and preferably low fat diet en route and at your destination. Of late, low fat meals are served on aeroplanes too.

Stress management- An injury or overwork results in physical strain. Unhappy marriage, financial problems, fast paced urban lifestyle can cause mental stress. It doesn’t help anybody to live with stress, physical or mental. If you are a diabetic it aggravates your condition. There are two reasons for this:

Therefore the trick is to combat stress. This is done either by confronting and solving the basic problem or learning to live with it. Relaxation techniques help.

Avoiding smoking and drinking - Smoking is addictive and it increases your chance of cancer and heart diseases. Smoking also narrows down the peripheral blood vessels and makes it difficult for wounds on the hands and legs to heal quickly. Drinking affects your liver. These are complications a diabetic can do without.

Exercise Beneficial to the Diabetic

Precautions

Arthritis

What is arthritis?
Swelling with pain in the joints and the tissues supporting it caused by a whole group of diseases is usually referred to as arthritis. Two common types are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. In osteoarthritis, the cartilage on the bone endings wears away. Bones rub against each other causing pain and stiffness. In Rheumatoid arthritis the membrane around the joint swells. The cartilage wears away and the neighbouring muscles are affected. This progresses to a stage when the joint becomes immovable. No specific cause for these disorders is known.

What are the exercises that can help?

Points to Note
At first it might be daunting to exercise stiffening joints. But a steady and graded exercise programme can bring a lot of relief. Some amount of pain may be experienced initially. However, if you experience pain for hours after your workout, check with your doctor.

Heart Disease
Diseases that affect the heart can be congenital or otherwise. A number of factors render the functioning of the heart difficult. The following are some factors that definitely contribute to heart problems:

All these factors can be controlled by exercises.

Precaution

Before you start an exercise program, have your ECG taken. Take advice from your doctor on your exercise programme.
Some Beneficial Exercises

Back Aches and Spinal Problems

Factors that contribute to backache
Accidents, injury and lifting of heavy loads are some obvious events that lead to backache. But more often than not, backache slowly builds up without your knowledge and then it is difficult to specify the cause.
Some contributory factors are :

Prevention is easier than cure
All the above mentioned factors can be dealt with. Correcting posture and exercising the abdominal muscles can go a long way in avoiding backache. When picking up objects from the floor bend at knees. Do not bend your back all the way. If you have acquired low back pain or spondylitis, exercises can help, but they have to be individualised and supervised.

Some beneficial exercises

Precautions

HOW IS MALARIA SPREAD :

MEASLES:

Meningococcal Disease

WHAT IS MENINGITIS?

Meningitis is an infection of the fluid in a person's spinal cord and of the fluid that surrounds the brain. People sometimes refer to it as spinal meningitis. Meningitis can be caused by either a viral or bacterial infection. Knowing whether meningitis is caused by a virus or bacterium is important because the severity of illness and the treatment differ. Viral meningitis is generally less severe and resolves without specific treatment, while bacterial meningitis can be quite severe and may result in brain damage, hearing loss, or learning disability. For bacterial meningitis, it is also important to know which type of bacteria is causing the meningitis because antibiotics can prevent some types from spreading and infecting other people. Before the 1990s, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) was the leading cause of bacterial meningitis, but new vaccines being given to all children as part of their routine immunizations have reduced the occurrence of invasive disease due to H. influenzae. Today, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis are the leading causes of bacterial meningitis.

WHAT ARE THE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF MENINGITIS?

High fever, headache, and stiff neck are common symptoms of meningitis in anyone over the age of 2 years. These symptoms can develop over several hours, or they may take 1 to 2 days. Other symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, discomfort looking into bright lights, confusion, and sleepiness. In newborns and small infants, the classic symptoms of fever, headache, and neck stiffness may be absent or difficult to detect, and the infant may only appear slow or inactive, or be irritable, have vomiting, or be feeding poorly. As the disease progresses, patients of any age may have seizures.

HOW IS MENINGITIS DIAGNOSED?

Early diagnosis and treatment are very important. If symptoms occur, the patient should see a doctor immediately. The diagnosis is usually made by growing bacteria from a sample of spinal fluid. The spinal fluid is obtained by performing a spinal tap, in which a needle is inserted into an area in the lower back where fluid in the spinal canal is readily accessible. Identification of the type of bacteria responsible is important for selection of correct antibiotics.

CAN MENINGITIS BE TREATED?

Bacterial meningitis can be treated with a number of effective antibiotics. It is important, however, that treatment be started early in the course of the disease. Appropriate antibiotic treatment of most common types of bacterial meningitis should reduce the risk of dying from meningitis to below 15%, although the risk is higher among the elderly.

IS MENINGITIS CONTAGIOUS?

Yes, some forms are bacterial meningitis are contagious. The bacteria are spread through the exchange of respiratory and throat secretions (i.e., coughing, kissing). Fortunately, none of the bacteria that cause meningitis are as contagious as things like the common cold or the flu, and they are not spread by casual contact or by simply breathing the air where a person with meningitis has been.
However, sometimes the bacteria that cause meningitis have spread to other people who have had close or prolonged contact with a patient with meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis (also called meningococcal meningitis) or Hib.
People in the same household or day care center, or anyone with direct contact with a patient's oral secretions (such as a boyfriend or girlfriend) would be considered at increased risk of acquiring the infection. People who qualify as close contacts of a person with meningitis caused by N. meningitidis should receive antibiotics to prevent them from getting the disease. Antibiotics for contacts of a person with Hib meningitis disease are no longer recommended if all contacts 4 years of age or younger are fully vaccinated against Hib disease (see below).

ARE THERE VACCINES AGAINST MENINGITIS?

Yes, there are vaccines against Hib and against some strains of N. meningitis and many types of Streptococcus pneumoniae. The vaccines against Hib are very safe and highly effective.
There is also a vaccine that protects against four strains of N. meningitis. The vaccine against N. meningitidis is sometimes used to control outbreaks of some types of meningococcal meningitis in the United States. Meningitis cases should be reported to state or local health departments to assure follow-up of close contacts and recognize outbreaks. Although large epidemics of meningococcal meningitis do not occur in the United States, some countries experience large, periodic epidemics. Overseas travelers should check to see if meningococcal vaccine is recommended for their destination. Travelers should receive the vaccine at least 1 week before departure, if possible. Information on areas for which meningococcal vaccine is recommended can be obtained by calling the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at 404.332.4565.
A vaccine to prevent meningitis due to S. pneumonia (also called pneumococcal meningitis) can also prevent other forms of infection due to S. pneumonia. The pneumococcal vaccine is not effective in children under 2 years of age but is recommended for all persons over 65 years of age and younger persons with certain chronic medical problems.

CHOLERA :   In a patient age 5 years or more, severe dehydration or death from acute watery diarrhea; If  there is a cholera epidemic, a suspected case is any person age 5 years or more with acute  watery diarrhea, with or without vomiting.

Few Tips to cure Cholera :

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Sexually Transmitted Diseases are more prevalent all over the world. A wide variety of infections are transmitted through sexual intercourse. Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Chancroid, Chlamydia or LGV, Herpes, genital wart and AIDS are the common venereal diseases for clinical consultation. Now-a-days AIDS has come to predominate the old ailments by its effect while the known, older ones seem to have become old and forgotten.

What is Gonorrhoea ?

Gonorrhoea is an infection caused by bacteria called Neisseria Gonorrhoeae. An infected person starts showing symptoms within 2 to 21 days. Mostly both women and men report with severe burning urination and thick yellow discharge from the genital passages. If gonorrhea is not treated it can spread to pelvic organs and cavity causing pelvic inflammatory disease. It can also result in scarring and permanent damage to the pelvic organs. If the infection is not treated properly it can cause infertility both in men and women.

What is Syphilis?

Syphilis is also a bacterial infection caused by Treponema Pallidum. The symptoms usually start in 5 to 90 days. A painless brown or red sore may appear on the site of infection. The most possible places are mouth of the penis, vagina and even in breasts. Many victims ignore the lesion since it is painless and serological tests show negative.

Usually the symptom disappears with or without treatment. Then the lesions may reappear after 1 month to 6 months with rashes all over the body and flu-like symptoms. Though the symptoms disappear with time, but if the person is not treated, he still has Syphilis. If left untreated it can cause heart disease, brain damage, blindness and even death. Syphilis is a deadly disease as it carries the infection that could affect the unborn or the off springs.

What is Chancroid?

Chancroid is also spread by sexual contact with an infected individual. The bacteria are more likely to invade the sexual organs at a point of a pre-existing injury, such as a small cut or scratch. The likelihood of transmission is greater if a person is very active sexually and does not practice good personal hygiene. The first sign of infection is one or more sores or raised bumps on the genital organs. They are surrounded by a narrow red border, which becomes filled with pus and eventually ruptures leaving a painful open sore. In untreated cases chancroid bacteria infects the lymph glands in the groin.

What is Herpes?

Herpes are lesions caused by a virus called Herpes Simplex Virus. Symptoms usually appear in 1 to 30 days after having intercourse. The person may not have any symptoms or can feel small painful blisters on the genital organs or in the mouth. The affected may experience flu-like symptoms. The blisters last from 1 to 3 weeks. And they disappear like the genital warts but the virus remains quietly in the body and possibly reappears.

What are Genital Warts?

The genital wart appears as a soft, flesh toned, bumpy growth that often looks like miniature pieces of cauliflower. They can be small or clusters in large masses. They can be found on the vulva, in the vagina, on the cervix, penis, anus and urethra. Another virus called Human Papilloma Virus causes wart growths. Some genital wart viruses can cause cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina or penis.

What is AIDS?

AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Human Immune Deficiency Virus is called HIV that primarily attacks the person's immune system and later affects other parts of the body. The immune system is what allows the body to fight off diseases, from common cold to vaginal infections and cancer. When the virus attacks the immune system, the immune system is not able to fight infection because a person affected with the virus may not show any symptoms and does not know whether he or she has the virus. It may take several months to over 10 years for a person carrying virus to develop symptoms of AIDS. Even though it spread through sexual contact chances are there to be infected by blood transfusion and needle pricking.

How to Diagnose?

Diagnosis of sexually transmitted diseases is confirmed only by the laboratory findings such as smear, serological tests, culture and special tests like Elisa, Immunoassay tests. If you've tested positive for HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) you are infected with the virus that causes AIDS. It does not mean you have AIDS. A diagnosis of AIDS is made when a person has specific signs or symptoms of immune system deficiency.

HIV attacks the body's immune system by destroying white blood cells called CD4 cells (also T4 or T helper cells). CD4 cells help the immune system fight infection. When you are HIV positive, your risk of infection will be reflected by the CD4 count.

The viral load test is a way of measuring how much virus is present in the blood. The viral load and the CD4 count, along with evaluation of your signs and symptoms, will help your doctor determine when to start antiviral medication and whether you are at risk of developing an opportunistic infection.

How to Prevent?

Persons with single sexual partner are the least likely to get HIV. If you do have or had more than one partner or are unsure if your partner has more than one partner, it is very important to use condoms to prove a barrier for any infectious organisms.

What is the treatment?

The infections, which are controlled initially, do not harm your body. But once it invades the blood stream, it gives much trouble. We can kill or control the virus, bacteria or fungus with strong medication. But the serological reactions would make every victim more anxious. It would make him suspicious and ask,
Whatever may be the nature of infection its impact affects the interpersonal relationship with one's life partner and disrupts the normal harmony of daily life.

Homoeopathy treats the person and raises the immunity rather than killing the organisms. Homoeopathy suits well for the AIDS treatment because it treats the basic immunity problem. I have attended few cases of AIDS with negative results but still it requires further definite confirmations like CD4 and viral load test and also requires time to observe symptoms. It would take few years for this study. Duration for cured cases would require little more time. I have come across many sexually transmitted diseases that have given me good results. It is wonderful to observe the serological reactions become negative. I wondered at the disappearance of genital warts. I couldn't even locate the place where it was earlier found. Many seek our treatment even though they do not respond well. In such cases also I have been successful in finding solutions. Many chronic lesions had been wonderfully corrected with the dynamic remedy!

What is Chickenpox?

Chickenpox is a disease caused by a virus called Varicella zoster. It is an extremely contagious disease. It starts as a rash with itching, which disappears later. It can affect several organs

Who are the people affected by Chickenpox?

Though the disease is common in children, anyone can be affected. In children, the infection is mild but in adults, it can cause severe illness with several complications. Once infected, a lifelong immunity is obtained, protecting the individual from further attacks.

How does one get Chickenpox?

A person suffering from Chickenpox sheds the virus from the skin rash. This is carried through the air. If a person who is susceptible inhales tthe virus particles, it results in infection. The chance of getting chicken pox from an infected person is as high as ninety percent, if a person spends just 15 minutes in close proximity with an infected person. A person could become contagious a couple of days before the symptoms appear and remain so until all the lesions have crusted.

How does the disease progress?

The symptoms start 2-3 weeks after contact with the virus.

What is the treatment for Chickenpox?

Till recently there was no treatment available for chickenpox. One had to allow the disease to run its course. Now, treatment with Acyclovir, is recommended especially in adults to minimise complications. One should consult the doctor regarding he dosage. The blisters need to heal, scab, and fall off on their own. Scratching can exacerbate the rash and also cause secondary infection. So it is better to keep finger nails trimmed. Paracetamol can be taken to reduce the fever and antihistamines to control the itching. Painkillers may also be given. In India, many religious sentiments are attached to chickenpox. Many people are afraid to use any drug during the course of the disease. As said before, the disease regresses by itself. If sores develop inside the mouth, eating bland foods can minimize the irritation. Spicy and acidic foods should be avoided.

Is there a vaccine available for Chickenpox?

Yes, there is a vaccine available for chickenpox. This is given as an injection:  Single dose for young children between the age of 12 months to 12 years  Two doses with an interval of 8 weeks for those aged 13yrs and above.

What is Herpes Zoster?

Herpes Zoster is a painful localised rash caused by the varicella virus. In persons who have recovered from chickenpox, the virus remains inactive in certain nerves and can be activated spontaneously after several months or years.It may occur on the trunks or limbs and charecteristically involves only one side of the trunk. The rash is similar to the rash of chicken pox (fluid filled blisters) but is more crowded and extremely painful.

Can Herpes Zoster be cured?

Treatment of Herpes Zoster is with pain killers and Acyclovir 800 mg tablets, 4 to 5 times a day. LIke in chicken pox, the rash disappears in a few days, but older patients can be left with a severe pain and burning sensation at the site of the rash, even after the rash clears.

Are there any complications?

If the person has a depressed immune system resulting from coincidental illness like diabetes, renal failure, HIV or due to immuno suppresant drugs (after organ transplantation) the rash can spread all over the body and can even be life threatening. A susceptible person can develop chicken pox when exposed to a person with Herpes Zoster.

Is it dangerous for a pregnant woman to go near a person with chickenpox?

If a woman has already had chickenpox when she was young, then she would have the immunity to the disease. But if she has not had chickenpox, then she should be very careful not to get infected, because infection early in pregnancy can lead to several types of fetal abnormalities, including limb abnormalities, scarring of internal organs and neurological damage. When a mother has chickenpox just before or after delivery, the baby may develop a severe form of the disease, which may rarely be fatal. Expectant mothers should take all precautions to avoid exposure to chickenpox. If exposure does occur, a woman can be tested to determine if she has immunity (if she is uncertain whether she has had chickenpox). If the test is negative or not available, a drug is available that can prevent infection if taken within 96 hours of exposure. The drug provides only short-term protection, so women remain susceptible to chickenpox if exposed again in the future. Pregnant women who suspect exposure to the disease should contact their doctor immediately.

MUMPS

INTRODUTION

Mumps is an acute viral infection of the paramyxovirus family. As its alternative name (infectious parotits) suggests, the infection is charecterized by swelling more commonly bilateral than unilateral of the parotid salivary glands. The incubation period is 14-21 days and is communicable from 6 days before to 9 days after facial swelling is apparent. It can lead to brain inflammation, deafness or sterility.

A stiff neck (benign meningeal sign) occurs in up to 15% of cases but permanent effects are rare. Orchitis, (inflammation of the testicles), usually affects only one side in up to 20% of symptomatic cases in postpubertal males. Sterility is a rare but potential complication, along with hepatitis, oophoritis, myocarditis, thyroiditis and nerve deafness.

Epidemiology
The virus is present throughout the world. About one-third of cases are without symptoms. Children are commonly affected, although when infection does occur in adults, this tends to be noticed because complications are more likely to be unpleasant. Cases usually occur in winter and spring. Transmission is by droplet and direct contact with an infected individual. It is expected that as vaccine uptake increases, cases will tend to occur predominantly in older children.

Treatment
There is no treatment against the virus. Supportive treatment is usually sufficient to minimize the effects of complications.

Public health strategies
Mumps is a potentially distressing illness with some particularly unpleasant side- effects. The disease is not considered eradicable, and has a low priority in terms of public health efforts to control it. Many countries have chosen to limit its effects by immunizing childhood populations. This is particularly important in terms of reducing the disease acquired in adults since their complications may be more severe.

Vaccines
The vaccine is a live attenuated viral vaccine, usually given in combination with measles and rubella vaccines (MMR), but may also be monovalent.

Safety
Following MMR, a fever of 39.40 C or higher develops in approximately 5-15% of susceptible vaccinees, usually beginning 7-12days after vaccination. The fever may last 1-2 days or for as long as 5 days. Transient rashes have also been reported in about 5% of vaccine recipients. Mild parotitis may also be seen rarely in the third week after immunization. The mild measles illness that occurs is not communicable.

GPV policy
Mumps vaccine is not part of the EPI recommended childhood immunization schedule, although dozens of countries use it as MR or MMR.

Special issues
Mumps infection and administration of the vaccine are both known to cause aseptic meningitis in a small proportion of individuals. This process involves an inflammation of the lining of the brain (meninges). The virus has been isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid in natural mumps infection. It is thought the Urabe strain of vaccine causes aseptic meningits in about one in one thousand immunized children, but this may vary from country to country. The Jeryl Lynn strain either cause much less or no aseptic meningitis. Most countries now use MMR vaccine containing the Jeryl Lynn strain, although evidence suggests that the Urabe strain may induce stronger immunit

The Mumps Vaccine

A killed mumps virus vaccine was licensed in the USA in 1948 and used from 1950 through 1978. The vaccine's use was poorly accepted because it induced only short-term (less than one year) immunity, required revaccination, and had a relatively low protective efficacy against clinical mumps in susceptible individuals. Live virus mumps vaccines, containing attenuated virus strains have since been developed in the USA, Japan, USSR,and Switzerland.

Mumps control: The control of mumps can be achieved through high routine coverage with an effective mumps-containing vaccine administered at 12–18 months of age. Children immunized with most mumps vaccines at the age of 12 months or older have excellent serological response rates. Programmes should aim at infant coverage of more than 90%. Low immunization coverage may reduce the number of cases in infants but fails to interrupt circulation of the mumps virus in the community.
Furthermore, there is an associated epidemiological shift, involving a paradoxical increase in the number of cases in adults who are without immunity from natural infection. The addition of mumps vaccine to the measles vaccination service by using the MMR combined vaccine is logistically sound. The use of the MMR combination is strongly encouraged where it is epidemiologically indicated and affordable.

Mumps elimination: Strategies for achieving mumps elimination should include:

A second opportunity is not required in countries where coverage with the first dose is sufficiently high (i.e. more than 90%). If a second opportunity is needed it can be given by administering a second routine dose or by conducting periodic catch-up campaigns. If an initial catch-up campaign is implemented, the target age group should be that in which susceptibility to mumps is highest. In most unvaccinated populations a majority of children acquire mumps infections before reaching the age of 10 years

Osteoporosis:

When you are young, your body uses calcium and phosphate to build strong bones. If you do not get enough calcium from your diet at this critical stage of life, you may not have enough bone mass to sustain good bone health throughout your mature years.

As you age, your body can take the calcium and phosphate that is stored in your bones to support the functioning of other organs. This can cause the bones to become fragile and brittle.

Both of these factors put you at risk for the progressive thinning and weakening of bone known as "osteoporosis." The amount of calcium that you consume in your bone building years is a "controllable risk factor."

What are the common causes of Osteoporosis?

Genetics - If you have a family history of osteoporosis, there is a 60 to 80 percent chance that you might also develop the condition.

Gender related - Eighty percent of those with osteoporosis are women.

Chronic medical problems - People with asthma, diabetes, hyperthyroidism, liver disease, or rheumatoid arthritis are at increased risk for osteoporosis.

Hormone deficiencies - Menopause in women and various medical treatments in men can lead to hormone deficiencies that are the leading cause of osteoporosis in both women and in men.

Alcohol - Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol is one of the most common risk factors for osteoporosis in young men.

Smoking - Smoking robs the bones of minerals. It increases the likelihood of spinal fractures in men by two to three times over those men who don't smoke.

Lack of exercise - Bones need the stimulation of weight-bearing exercise to keep them strong and fit. Without exercise they lose density and become weak.

What you can do

Too often osteoporosis is not discovered until late in its progress when a fracture occurs. The most common sites for fractures are the hips and spine, which can require long periods for recovery and can threaten your mobility and independence.

If you can discover the specific risk factors that influence your bone health, you can take charge of the controllable risks and take steps to minimize the effects of those that are uncontrollable. Early evaluation of your risk factors can help you to prevent osteoporosis, or if you already have it, to slow it down and even stop it. Perhaps most importantly, you can avoid the risk of debilitating fractures.

Talk to your doctor about your risk factors and work together to tailor a program that will help you prevent osteoporosis.

What are the symptoms of bone loss?

Osteoporosis is known as the "silent disease" because bone loss often progresses over the years without any symptoms. The few symptoms that do occur, usually only appear in the advanced stages.

While neck pain and bone pain or tenderness can accompany bone loss, the most common symptoms of osteoporosis are bone fractures, stooped posture, loss of height, and back pain.

Nutrition and Vitamins for strong bones

Ever hear the expression, "We are what we eat"? Most of us probably believe that it's true, but how many of us actually take it to heart? When you start to think about it, when we don't pay attention to what we're putting into our bodies, we're really missing out on an important opportunity. Eating and taking vitamins are opportunities for us to become healthier and more vibrant.

And making sure we get plenty of the vitamins and nutrients that help build and maintain strong bones is an opportunity for us to help ourselves stay healthy and active throughout our lives. Our bones literally hold us up - with a little help from our muscles. If we are what we eat, then let's eat to have strong bones that will keep doing their job for years to come.

General nutrition for strong bones

t is literally never too early or too late to start eating and taking supplements to build and maintain strong bones. Whether you're 8 years old or 80, your bones (and the rest of your body!) will benefit from a well-balanced diet that includes the nutrients and vitamins that support bone formation.

The first step towards developing good nutrition and a healthy diet that supports strong bones is to examine your diet and see how it rates in terms of variety and quality. Do you eat the same thing every day? Do you eat fresh fruits and vegetables as often as you can? Do you take supplements to support your diet and make up for any nutrients you may be missing?

In general, you should make sure that you eat a variety of:

If you follow a specific diet, you can always substitute certain foods for those that you do not eat. For example, if you are a vegetarian, you can eat more dry beans, nuts, and tofu in place of meat.

Importance of Calcium?

Most people, especially those with or at risk for osteoporosis, should take a calcium supplement in addition to eating calcium-rich foods.

Other nutrients that support healthy bones

Your bones can benefit from more than just calcium and vitamin D. In fact, there are a number of additional components that all play an important role in bone development and maintenance. And they all support the role that calcium plays in building strong bones.

Additional bone-friendly nutrients and their sources:

CANCER:

EARLY DETECTION AND SYMTOMS OF CANCER

Many types of cancer do not exhibit conspicuous symptoms or cause pain until well advanced. Since early-stage cancer symptoms tend to be subtle, they are often disregarded for something less serious. Sometimes, cancer can be found before the disease causes symptoms. Checking for cancer (or for conditions that may lead to cancer) in a person who does not have any symptoms of the disease is called screening. In routine physical exams, the doctor looks for anything unusual and feels for any lumps or growths. Specific screening tests, such as lab tests, x-rays, or other procedures, are used routinely for only a few types of cancer, like those of the breast, cervix, colon and rectum.

Cancer can cause a variety of symptoms:

DIAGNOSIS

If symptoms are present, the doctor asks about the person's medical history and performs a physical exam. In addition to checking general signs of health, the doctor may order various tests and exams. No matter who makes the diagnosis, a second opinion by a cancer expert is strongly recommended. These may include laboratory tests and imaging procedures. A biopsy is usually necessary to determine whether cancer is present. Accurate identification of cancer allows oncologists to choose the most effective treatment. The most common diagnostic methods include:

BIOPSY

A small tissue sample is surgically removed and examined under a microscope for the presence of cancer cells. If cancer is present, the entire tumor may be removed immediately or during another operation.

A flexible plastic tube with a tiny camera on the end is inserted into body cavities and designed to view the suspicious area.

LABORATORY TESTS

Blood and urine tests give important information about a person's health. In some cases, special tests are used to measure the amount of certain substances, called tumor markers, in the blood, urine, or certain tissues. Tumor marker levels may be abnormal if certain types of cancer are present. However, lab tests alone cannot be used to diagnose cancer.

Several techniques are used to produce an internal picture of the body. Types of imaging methods include: X-rays, CAT scan (computerized axial tomography), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Ultrasound.

STAGING

When cancer is diagnosed, the doctor will want to learn the stage or extent of the disease. Staging is a careful attempt to find out whether the cancer has spread and, if so, to which parts of the body. Treatment decisions depend on the results of staging. The doctor may order more laboratory tests and imaging studies or additional biopsies to find out whether the cancer has spread. An operation called a laparotomy can help the doctor find out whether cancer has spread within the abdomen. During this operation, a surgeon makes an incision into the abdomen and removes samples of tissue.